Author:  Anbaoe  Lee

Beijing Dingson Environmental Protection Technology Company, No12 Huangsi street, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100028, P.R.China   

1. The Foreword

Today, we have known that the fixed star mainly depends on the thermonuclear fusion to gain the large quantities of energy in order to evolve continuously. But the theory, which two nuclei directly collide with each other to form a compound nucleus, is still effective as we study thermonuclear fusion. The nuclear fusion actions of fixed stars are simply described by two nuclear cycles, namely the proton cycles and the carbon cycle ^[1]. However, scientists have not yet found the most effective means of the controlled nuclear fusion up to now. In the man-made plasma of the controlled fusion, some scientists have discovered that the fusion products of the hydrogen isotopes are very varied and complicated, and the following is the list of reactions shown ^[2]:

T + D → ⁴He + n.

³He + D → ⁴He + p.

D + D → T + p.

D + D → ³He + n.

D + D → any reaction.

T + T → any reaction.

T + ³He → any reaction.

There are always lots of the protons and the neutrons even including the electrons and positrons in the reactions. Why are always the products of each reaction very multiple for the hydrogen isotopes’ fusion reactions D+D or T+T or T+³He? However, none of them has affirmed the basic cause of that these elementary particles ^[3] are produced.

Although some physicists have still insisted that there are no the electrons in the nucleus ^[1,3] based on the Einstein's relativity theory, however, others physicists have gathered many evidences of the electrons emitted or accepted by the nuclei, such as β-decays, K-captures ^[1,3], and the nuclei being bombarded to yield the neutrons by those electrons with the certain energy ^[3,4,5]. These facts show fully that the nuclei can contain the electrons with the certain energy. It should be insisted that, it is very important that the electrons can join in lots of nuclear reactions, particularly the system of having the large quantities of the electrons, for example the thermonuclear fusion. But this side is almost overlooked. Some physicists admit the relation namely p + e → n + υ_e  only as the  plasma density ρ is 10¹⁰~10¹⁴kg/m^{3 [6]}. The electrons should be regarded as a kind of the entity particles, which can be independent but not suppositional particles.

Especially, a great deal of neutrons are easily produced as the electrons bombard into Li, Be, Pd, Pb etc. ^[4,5], though these escaping neutrons without electric charge are easy to combine with the others nuclei the same as the easiness of its escape. Similarly, the electrons can actively take part in the actions of thermonuclear reaction, and are easily captured by the light nuclei. Now, for the thermonuclear fusion, a new nuclear cycles model will be propound, namely that varied nuclides cycling depend seriously on the large quantities of the elementary particles cycling and bombarding. Particularly, the model is still directly relative to the electrons captured.

Simply, in the processes of thermonuclear fusion, there are the large quantities of the electrons with the certain energy to bombard into the light nuclei so as to yield plenty of the neutrons; then, the large quantities of neutrons bombard into the others light nuclei to produce out the large quantities of the super-nuclides ^[7] of light nuclei; thus, the large quantities of the super-nuclides can yield β-decays and such decays to form plenty of the heavy nuclei; moreover, the decayed electrons and such the elementary particles can return to join in the thermonuclear reactions. So these elementary particles can make the nuclear reactions of the elementary particles and various nuclei hold a cycling state. Of course, in the fixed star, these nuclear reactions always take place at the same time. This is just the thermonuclear fusion model of multi-nucleus cycling, namely that varied nuclei cycling depends seriously on the elementary particles cycling and bombarding. As follows, the model will continue to be explored.

2.The Elementary Particles Causing the Nuclear Fusion

There is always a great deal of the plasma, which mainly contains plenty of hydrogen in the fixed star, so that the frequent thermonuclear reactions of depending on the hydrogen plasma can be maintained. Due to the complicated movement of the plasma, their lively actions cannot yet be accurately described by all of the present theories. It is not perfect for the nuclear fusion theory that two light nuclei directly form a compound nucleus, like two hydrogen nuclides collide each other to turn into the helium etc. Because it was only based on a simple fact that, the beams of deuterons were used to bombard into the target of deuterons so that the neutrons could have been discovered at the laboratory in the 1930s, though this judgment is similarly lacking further support with the experimental advance. No one has declared that the fusion compound course of having been observed is so simple that it is like this state up to the present. Indeed, the compound course of two positive charge nuclei requires enough energy to get over the Coulomb repulsive force, moreover, the lasting nuclear fusion can never be ensured by the common environment of holding power.

However, the electrons' charge-mass ratio is the highest among all charged particles, so the electrons are easier to be accelerated to gain the certain energy than that of the others large particles like helium and proton etc. in the electromagnetic field of plasma. An electron carries a negative unit charge and keeps the Coulomb’s attraction against the nucleus, so that those electrons with only the certain energy are easy to be captured by the nuclei. The probability that the electrons are captured by hydrogen nuclei is greater than that of two protons combining. In reality, soon afterwards, physicists have discovered that lots of the nuclides can have the orbital electron captured in the lab ^[1,3,7]. These facts further show that, the probability that the electrons collide into the nuclei is greater than that of the two nuclei combining directly, because we have not discovered that two nuclei can combine automatically by only themselves to form a compound nucleus all the time. Therefore, it is very important for the view that the electrons are captured by the light nuclei in the thermonuclear fusion.

As the following, I shall further discuss the thermonuclear reactions model, which the multi-nucleus cycling depends seriously on the elementary particles cycling and bombarding, and set the example of as hydrogen plasma.

1.The Simplest Mode of Thermonuclear Fusion

The bombarding of the electrons and neutrons has very important contribution to the nuclear fusion. Especially the electrons bombard into the nuclei to yield the neutrons, and set free the large quantities of energy. These nuclear reactions can make the system of hydrogen plasma own the indispensable quantities of the neutrons to start actively up the thermonuclear fusion. The following is the first group of the nuclear reactions <1> shown:

p + e → n +υ+ΔE

d + e → 2n +υ+ΔE

³H + e → 3n +υ+ΔE

Generally speaking, the electrons bombarding the light nuclei will also make the neutrinos be produced. In these of nuclear reactions, ΔE is setting free the energy with the electromagnetic wave, and is probably different with the various electron energy in each reaction.

From the upper nuclear reactions equations, the hydrogen nucleus can decrease a unit charge as it accepts an electron, so the hydrogen nuclides can turn into a neutron or several neutrons, even including a momentary multi-neutron body. Owing to neutrons’ own neutrality, they are more easily close to the others hydrogen nuclei and result in the new nuclear reactions happening. So the neutrons can collide into the hydrogen nuclei to change into the new nuclei, though these reactions own different reactive cross sections like as the electrons colliding into hydrogen nuclei. Thus, if the hydrogen nuclei accept continuously several neutrons, they will change into the hydrogen super-nuclides, even producing ⁶H and ⁷H etc., lots of which have not been discovered in the lab up to now. The following is the second group of the nuclear reactions <2> shown:

p + n → d

d + n → ³H

³H + n → ⁴H

⁴H + n → ⁵H

⁵H + n → ⁶H

⁶H + n → ⁷H

…

However, we know, the super-nuclides always have the strong activity like as making the β-decays and the γ-decays or αdecay etc. Along with the increasing of the super-nuclide’s mass of having the same charges, its activity will become much stronger. The super-nuclide can evolve into the nucleus of the next atomic number as it emits the electrons and such the negative elementary particles according to its own energy to decide. So the hydrogen super-nuclides can evolve into helium nuclei and lithium nuclei etc. The following is the third group of the nuclear reactions <3> shown:

³H → ³He + e +υ+γ

⁴H → ⁴He + e +υ+γ

⁵H → ⁵He + e +υ+γ

⁶H → ⁶He + e +υ+γ

⁷H → ⁷He + e +υ+γ

…

⁵H → ⁴He + n + e +υ+γ

⁶H → ⁴He + 2n + e +υ+γ

⁷H → ⁴He + 3n + e +υ+γ

…

⁵He → ⁵Li + e +υ+γ

⁶He → ⁶Li + e +υ

⁷He → ⁷Li + e +υ+γ

⁷He → ⁶Li + n + e +υ+γ

…

From the above nuclear reaction groups <1> <2> <3>, we can gain the simple conclusion that, forming the compound nucleus from hydrogen to helium cannot be completed through only once reactive course, but it is at least a series of continuous processes that are composed of several nuclear reactions with relevant logic linking up. Of course, the nuclear charges can completely hold the conservation among all of the upper nuclear reactions. While the quantities of electrons are decreasing in the system of thermonuclear fusion, accordingly those super-nuclides and neutrons and γ-rays can be gradual to increase. Moreover, the escaping electrons coming from the β-decays can return to cause the new nuclear reactions with the others hydrogen nuclei again, though these electrons need to be accelerated by the system. Here, the electrons already begin to cycle.

However, the actions mode of the particles in the system of thermonuclear fusion can never stop on the above processes <1><2><3>, namely which we already point out the simplest model of thermonuclear fusion. The system will continue to produce the large quantities of the new compound nuclei. The thermonuclear reactions are always very complicated.

2.The Multi-charge Nuclei Yielded and Cycled

The various super-nuclides have the different half-life, so that lots of them can own the decaying ability but not to take place right away. Thus, the large quantities of neutrons can still collide into helium and lithium etc. and their super-nuclides without decaying, and yield the heavier super-nuclides even including the super-heavy super-nuclides. The following is the fourth group of the nuclear reactions <4> shown:

³He + n → ⁴He

⁴He + n → ⁵He

⁵He + n → ⁶He

⁶He + n → ⁷He

⁷He + n → ⁸He

…

⁶Li + n → ⁷Li

⁷Li + n → ⁸Li

⁸Li + n → ⁹Li

…

⁷Be + n → ⁸Be

⁸Be + n → ⁹Be

⁹Be + n → ¹⁰Be

…

⁸B + n → ⁹B

⁹B + n → ¹⁰B

¹⁰B + n → ¹¹B

¹¹B + n → ¹²B

¹²B + n → ¹³B

…

Similarly, because the various super-nuclides have different half-life, most super-nuclides of the light nuclei cannot make decay immediately in the thermonuclear fusion at any time, so lots of the electrons can also cause the nuclear reactions with the super-nuclides of the light nuclei, though these nuclear reactions have various reactive cross sections similarly. The following is the fifth group of the nuclear reactions <5> shown:

    ⁴H + e → 4n +υ+ΔE

    ⁵H + e → 5n +υ+ΔE

    ⁶H + e → 6n +υ+ΔE

    …

    ³He + e → ³H +υ+ΔE

    ⁴He + e → ⁴H → ³H + n +υ+ΔE

      ⁵He + e → ⁵H → ³H + 2n +υ+ΔE

    ⁶He + e → ⁶H → ³H + 3n +υ+ΔE

⁷He + e → ⁷H → ³H + 4n +υ+ΔE

…

⁶Li + e → ⁶He +υ+ΔE

⁷Li + e → ⁷He +υ+ΔE

…

⁶Li + e → ⁶He→ ⁴He + 2n +υ+ΔE

⁷Li + e → ⁷He→ ⁴He + 3n +υ+ΔE

…

⁷Be + e → ⁷Li +υ+ΔE

⁸Be + e → ⁸Li +υ+ΔE

⁸Be + e → ⁷Li + n +υ+ΔE

⁸Be + e → ⁶Li + 2n +υ+ΔE

⁸Be + e → ⁴He + ²H +2n +υ+ΔE

⁹Be + e → ⁹Li +υ+ΔE

⁹Be + e → ⁹Li→ ⁷Li + 2n +υ+ΔE

⁹Be + e → ⁹Li→ ⁶Li + 3n +υ+ΔE

…

⁸B + e → ⁸Be +υ+ΔE

⁹B + e → ⁹Be +υ+ΔE

¹⁰B + e → ¹⁰Be +υ+ΔE

¹¹B + e → ¹¹Be +υ+ΔE

¹²B + e → ¹²Be +υ+ΔE

¹¹B + e → ¹¹Be→ ⁹Be +2n +υ+ΔE

¹²B + e → ¹²Be→ ⁹Be +3n +υ+ΔE

…

From upper nuclear reactions <5> seeing, the super-nuclides capturing the electrons already form the neutron cycling again. At the same time, the simplest light nuclei cycling also show up in the system.

Many the helium super-nuclides have the β-decays to change into the lithium nuclei, and the lithium super-nuclides can change into the beryllium nuclei etc. based on their own energy states. Besides, certain nuclides of the light nuclei can still have the β⁺ decay to produce the positrons even including neutrons. Even a few of them can hold the double β-decay, for example ⁸He etc. The following is the sixth group of the nuclear reactions <6> shown:

⁵He → ⁵Li + e +υ+γ

⁶He → ⁶Li + e +υ

⁷He → ⁷Li + e +υ+γ

⁸He → ⁸Li + e +υ+γ

⁸He → ⁸Li + n + e +υ+γ

⁸Li → ⁸Be + e +υ+γ

⁸Li →2⁴He + e +υ+γ

⁹Li → ⁹Be + e +υ+γ

⁹Li →2⁴He + n + e +υ+γ

…

⁸Be →2⁴He +γ

¹⁰Be → ¹⁰B + e +υ

¹¹Be → ¹¹B + e +υ

…

¹²B → ¹²C + e +υ

¹²B → ⁷Li + ⁴He + n + e +υ

¹²B → ⁶Li + ⁴He + 2n + e +υ

¹³B → ¹³C + e +υ

¹³B → ¹²C + n + e +υ

…

⁵Li → ⁴He + e⁺ + n +υ

⁵Li → ⁵He + e⁺ +υ

⁷Be → ⁶Li + e⁺ + n +υ

⁷Be → ⁷Li + e⁺ +υ

⁸B → ⁸Be + e⁺ +υ

…

From analysis by the synthesis of above nuclear reactions <1> to <6> seeing, just the light nuclei cycling already appear all in this phase. On the one hand, as a nuclide of the light nuclei captures the electrons, its nuclear charge number is sure to be decreased with the electrons number of being captured; but on the other hand, if the super-nuclide makes β^- decay and emits electrons, its nuclear charge number is sure to be increased with the electrons number of escaping; similarly, the nuclear charge number is sure to be decreased with the electrons number of escaping again as those nuclei make β⁺ decay. Thus, the whole thermonuclear reactions just hold a state of various nuclei cycling, but these nuclei cycling must depend seriously on the elementary particles cycling and bombarding.

The elementary particles pass frequently in and out various nuclei, in substance, they are also maintaining their own cycle state as this mode all the time. Obviously, there are two cycles in the thermonuclear fusion, i.e., the cycling of varied nuclides and elementary particles. So the nuclear fusion model may be named after the double-cycle model, namely the multi-nucleus cycling of depending seriously on the elementary particles cycling and bombarding.

Therefore, according as this model of the nuclear fusion, various super-nuclides and multi-charge nuclei can be continuously brought out once this system of thermonuclear fusion is founded. As thus, we can discover the existence of varied particles including from electron to proton, Helium, Lithium, Beryllium, … even extending to various super-uranium nuclei in the nuclear fusion. Moreover, the nuclear cycles-level and quantities and kinds are always gradual to increase until the hydrogen plasma almost use out.

Because, the plasma contain very larger quantities of varied particles, and various nuclear reactions have different reactive cross sections, moreover the fusion course cannot yet complete through only a step, so that all particles in the plasma can never be used out momentarily to form the certain super-heavy nuclei. Therefore, some huge sidereal system can hold a very long times even probably over tens of billions years maintaining the thermonuclear fusion.

Furthermore, the yielding gamma rays can also create varied nuclear reactions. Moreover, there are plenty of the products of the effective collision between e⁺ and e^-. Even there are the reactions that the electrons or the positrons collide into the neutrons. All of these fully show that the thermonuclear reactions are very complicated. Exactly speaking, almost every nuclear reaction of depending on the elementary particles bombarding, can all be discovered in the thermonuclear fusion. Moreover, each group of the nuclear reaction in the upper reactions appears not alone, but all nuclear reactions always take place continuously in the fixed star at the same time, though these reactions have no same amounts.